The thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) regulates the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator based on the evaporator’s superheat. Modifying its settings involves carefully altering the valve’s spring pressure to achieve optimal system performance. This process directly influences the amount of refrigerant supplied to the evaporator coil, thereby impacting cooling capacity and efficiency. In practice, this adjustment may entail turning an adjustment stem, often located beneath a protective cap on the valve body, with small increments to observe the subsequent effect on superheat readings.
Proper calibration of this control device is paramount for maintaining efficient refrigeration or air conditioning system operation. Deviations from ideal settings can lead to issues such as evaporator flooding (low superheat), which risks liquid refrigerant entering the compressor and causing damage. Conversely, excessive superheat (starved evaporator) diminishes cooling capacity and increases energy consumption. Historically, skilled technicians relied on experience and meticulous measurements to fine-tune these valves, ensuring systems operated at their peak efficiency and longevity.
The following sections will describe common methods for evaluating superheat and outline a systematic approach to modifying the TXV’s settings. This will include a discussion of necessary tools, safety precautions, and potential challenges encountered during the adjustment process. It will also provide insights into recognizing the indicators of a correctly calibrated valve versus one requiring further refinement.
1. Superheat Measurement
Superheat measurement is fundamental to the process of correctly adjusting a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). It serves as a direct indicator of evaporator performance and refrigerant utilization, guiding the necessary modifications to the TXV’s settings for optimal system operation.
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Definition and Calculation
Superheat is defined as the temperature difference between the actual refrigerant vapor temperature at the evaporator outlet and the refrigerant’s saturation temperature at that same point. Accurate measurement requires precise temperature and pressure readings at the evaporator outlet. This calculation reveals whether the evaporator is being adequately supplied with refrigerant or if it is being overfed or starved.
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Impact on Compressor Health
Maintaining proper superheat is critical for compressor protection. Insufficient superheat allows liquid refrigerant to enter the compressor, potentially causing damage to internal components due to liquid compression. Conversely, excessive superheat indicates a lack of refrigerant reaching the compressor, leading to overheating and reduced efficiency. Monitoring superheat prevents premature compressor failure.
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Diagnostic Indicator
Deviations from the target superheat range often signal underlying system issues beyond the TXV. For example, high superheat could also indicate a refrigerant leak, a restricted filter drier, or a malfunctioning condenser fan. Therefore, superheat measurements are essential for comprehensive system diagnostics, not solely TXV adjustment.
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Adjustment Feedback Loop
Superheat readings provide direct feedback during TXV adjustments. After each incremental adjustment to the valve stem, the resulting change in superheat must be observed. This iterative process allows technicians to fine-tune the TXV until the target superheat is achieved, ensuring the evaporator operates at its designed capacity without risking compressor damage.
In summary, superheat measurement acts as the cornerstone for TXV adjustment. It provides essential data regarding evaporator performance and serves as the primary guide for optimizing refrigerant flow. Accurate interpretation and application of superheat readings are vital for achieving efficient and reliable system operation.
2. Refrigerant Charge
The refrigerant charge within a refrigeration or air conditioning system exerts a significant influence on the performance and adjustability of the thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). An incorrect refrigerant charge can mimic or exacerbate issues related to TXV malfunction, leading to improper system operation and potential equipment damage.
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Impact on Superheat
An undercharged system will often exhibit excessively high superheat, irrespective of TXV adjustments. The evaporator coil is starved of refrigerant, causing premature superheating of the refrigerant vapor. Conversely, an overcharged system can result in low or zero superheat, where liquid refrigerant floods the evaporator and potentially reaches the compressor. Accurate adjustments are impossible if the charge is not correct.
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System Pressure Relationships
Refrigerant charge directly affects system pressures. An undercharge typically leads to lower than normal suction and discharge pressures, whereas an overcharge can cause elevated pressures. These pressure deviations can mislead technicians into making inappropriate TXV adjustments in an attempt to compensate for the underlying charge problem. Correcting the charge is paramount before altering the valve.
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Subcooling as an Indicator
Subcooling, measured at the condenser outlet, serves as a reliable indicator of refrigerant charge, particularly in systems with a TXV. Low subcooling often indicates an undercharge, while high subcooling suggests an overcharge. Analyzing subcooling in conjunction with superheat provides a more comprehensive assessment of the system’s refrigerant status, helping differentiate charge-related issues from TXV-related problems.
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TXV Adjustment Validity
Any adjustments made to the TXV while the refrigerant charge is incorrect will likely be ineffective and may even compound the problem. After the refrigerant charge is verified and corrected to the manufacturer’s specifications, the TXV’s superheat setting can be accurately evaluated and adjusted as needed. A properly charged system is essential for ensuring that TXV adjustments are meaningful and lead to optimal performance.
In essence, refrigerant charge forms a critical prerequisite to any attempts to modify a TXV. Prioritizing charge verification before valve calibration ensures that adjustments are made under appropriate operating conditions, resulting in stable and efficient system performance and preventing misdiagnosis of TXV-related problems. A system must be properly charged to achieve any success modifying a TXV valve.
3. System Stability
The stability of a refrigeration or air conditioning system profoundly influences the effectiveness of thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) adjustments. Fluctuations in system parameters, such as pressure and temperature, can mask the true impact of TXV modifications, rendering the calibration process inaccurate and potentially detrimental to long-term performance.
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Load Variations and Hunting
Unstable loads, resulting from frequent on/off cycling or fluctuating ambient conditions, can cause the TXV to “hunt.” This cyclical overfeeding and starving of the evaporator makes it difficult to assess superheat accurately and achieve a stable operating point. Before adjusting the TXV, ensure that the system is operating under relatively consistent load conditions to obtain reliable performance data. Identifying and addressing root causes of load variation (e.g., poor insulation, oversized equipment) is key before valve adjustments.
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Pressure Fluctuations and Control Issues
Erratic system pressures can stem from compressor instability, condenser fan cycling issues, or problems within the metering device itself. These fluctuations disrupt the evaporator’s ability to maintain a steady superheat, complicating TXV adjustments. Stabilizing system pressures is crucial. This may necessitate addressing compressor issues, ensuring proper condenser fan operation, or verifying the integrity of other system components upstream from the TXV.
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Thermal Inertia and Response Time
The thermal mass of the evaporator and surrounding components introduces a time lag between TXV adjustments and observable changes in superheat. Significant thermal inertia can delay the response, making it challenging to determine the true effect of small valve modifications. Allow sufficient time (typically 15-30 minutes) for the system to reach a new equilibrium after each adjustment. Monitoring the system’s trends over this period provides a more accurate understanding of the TXV’s impact.
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Refrigerant Migration and Oil Return
Refrigerant migration during off-cycles and poor oil return can destabilize the system, leading to erratic superheat readings upon start-up. Addressing these issues ensures that the refrigerant and oil distribution within the system is consistent, improving the reliability of superheat measurements and TXV adjustments. Verifying proper piping design and implementing measures to promote oil return are essential for achieving stable operation and effective valve calibration.
In conclusion, achieving system stability is a prerequisite for meaningful thermostatic expansion valve adjustments. Addressing load variations, pressure fluctuations, thermal inertia, and refrigerant/oil distribution issues ensures that TXV modifications are performed under controlled conditions, leading to accurate calibration and optimized system performance. Addressing underlying systemic problems prior to altering the valve is key to achieving long-term operational success.
4. Valve stem location
The valve stem location is a critical determinant in the process of adjusting a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). Its accessibility and design directly influence the ease and accuracy with which adjustments can be made. Obstructed access, for example, necessitates the removal of surrounding components, increasing labor time and the risk of incidental damage. The stem’s physical designwhether it requires a specialized tool or features a clear indication of rotational directionalso significantly impacts the precision and safety of the adjustment. A deeply recessed stem might demand specialized tools, while a stem lacking clear markings could lead to unintended adjustments in the wrong direction, further compounding operational problems. For instance, in some industrial refrigeration units, the valve stem is located within a sealed housing requiring specialized tools and procedures to access, adding complexity to the modification process.
The stems location also influences the environment in which the adjustment is performed. A stem situated in a confined or poorly lit space increases the likelihood of errors and compromises the technician’s ability to accurately gauge the impact of each adjustment. Furthermore, proximity to other system components, particularly those carrying high-voltage electricity or extreme temperatures, presents safety hazards. Consider residential HVAC systems where the TXV stem might be located near the condenser fan motor or within close proximity to refrigerant lines, requiring careful handling and adherence to safety protocols during adjustment. These real-world constraints necessitate meticulous planning and execution during the valve calibration process.
In summary, the valve stem location is not merely a physical attribute, but a key factor affecting the efficiency, accuracy, and safety of TXV adjustments. Its accessibility, design, and surrounding environment dictate the tools, techniques, and precautions required for successful calibration. Technicians must thoroughly assess the stems location before attempting adjustments to minimize errors, prevent damage, and ensure optimal system performance. Understanding its importance minimizes risks when achieving precise calibration.
5. Incremental Turns
The process of adjusting a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) relies significantly on the principle of incremental adjustments. This approach mitigates the risk of overcorrection and facilitates precise calibration for optimal system performance.
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Precision and Control
Employing small, measured turns allows technicians to observe the resulting changes in system parameters, such as superheat and pressure, without abruptly disrupting the system’s equilibrium. This controlled approach is crucial for preventing over-adjustment, which can lead to inefficient operation or even component damage. For instance, a quarter-turn adjustment provides a manageable change, while larger adjustments might create drastic and potentially damaging effects.
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Feedback and Monitoring
Incremental turns provide opportunities for continuous feedback and monitoring. After each adjustment, sufficient time is allotted for the system to stabilize, and system parameters are reevaluated. This iterative process allows technicians to correlate specific adjustments with their corresponding effects on system performance, enabling a fine-tuning approach to TXV calibration. Without such feedback, correct adjustment would be difficult or even impossible.
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Preventing System Shock
Abrupt adjustments to the TXV can induce system shock, characterized by rapid fluctuations in temperature and pressure. These shocks can stress system components and obscure the true impact of the adjustment. Incremental turns minimize the likelihood of system shock, allowing for a smoother transition and a more accurate assessment of the adjustment’s effectiveness. This method reduces the risk of unforeseen and unwanted consequences.
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Adaptation to System Response
The system’s response to TXV adjustments can vary depending on factors such as system size, refrigerant type, and operating conditions. Incremental turns allow technicians to adapt their approach based on the observed system response, accounting for these variables. This adaptive strategy ensures that the TXV is calibrated according to the specific needs of the system, leading to optimized performance. Such fine-tuning minimizes potential errors and maximizes efficiency.
In summation, the principle of incremental turns is integral to achieving accurate and effective TXV adjustments. It provides the control, feedback, and adaptability necessary to navigate the complexities of refrigeration and air conditioning systems, ensuring that the valve is calibrated for optimal performance and longevity. Prioritizing incremental adjustments minimizes risks and ensures reliable equipment operation.
6. Pressure Readings
Pressure readings are indispensable diagnostic indicators when calibrating a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). They provide real-time insights into the system’s operational state, enabling technicians to make informed decisions during the adjustment process. Without accurate pressure readings, TXV calibration becomes a process of guesswork, potentially leading to inefficient performance and equipment damage.
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Suction Pressure and Evaporator Load
Suction pressure, measured at the compressor inlet, directly reflects the evaporator’s ability to boil refrigerant. A low suction pressure may indicate an underfed evaporator due to TXV malfunction or low refrigerant charge, while an excessively high suction pressure could signify overfeeding. Adjustments to the TXV must be correlated with changes in suction pressure to ensure the evaporator receives the correct refrigerant flow. For instance, if the suction pressure remains low despite opening the TXV, a separate issue, such as a refrigerant leak, is indicated.
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Discharge Pressure and Condenser Performance
Discharge pressure, measured at the compressor outlet, provides information about the condenser’s performance and overall system heat rejection. Elevated discharge pressure can stem from a dirty condenser coil, a malfunctioning condenser fan, or an overcharged system. These factors can indirectly affect TXV operation. Before adjusting the TXV, it is crucial to address any issues contributing to abnormal discharge pressures. Failure to do so can lead to inaccurate TXV adjustments, as the valve attempts to compensate for external factors.
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Pressure Drop Across Components
Measuring pressure drops across key system components, such as the filter drier and evaporator coil, helps identify restrictions that can mimic TXV malfunction. A significant pressure drop across the filter drier suggests a blockage, preventing adequate refrigerant flow to the TXV. Similarly, excessive pressure drop across the evaporator coil may indicate a refrigerant distribution problem. Addressing these restrictions is essential before adjusting the TXV. These components must be evaluated to determine what issues are occuring.
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Saturation Temperatures and Superheat Calculation
Pressure readings are used to determine the saturation temperatures of the refrigerant at the evaporator outlet. This saturation temperature, in conjunction with the actual refrigerant temperature, allows for the calculation of superheat. Accurate superheat measurement is fundamental to TXV adjustment. Without accurate pressure readings, the superheat calculation becomes unreliable, rendering TXV adjustments ineffective. Saturation temperatures allow a technician to determine any superheat calculations.
In conclusion, pressure readings are not merely supplementary data points but integral components of the TXV adjustment process. They provide essential context for understanding system behavior, diagnosing underlying issues, and evaluating the impact of adjustments. A thorough analysis of pressure readings, in conjunction with other diagnostic indicators, enables technicians to calibrate TXVs effectively and optimize system performance.
7. Subcooling evaluation
Subcooling evaluation, the process of determining how much a liquid refrigerant is cooled below its saturation temperature at a given pressure, plays a crucial, albeit indirect, role in thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) adjustment. While the TXV directly responds to superheat at the evaporator outlet, subcooling provides insight into the overall refrigerant charge and condenser performance, both of which impact the conditions under which the TXV operates. For instance, insufficient subcooling often signals an undercharged system, making proper TXV calibration impossible until the charge is corrected. Conversely, excessive subcooling can indicate an overcharged system or condenser inefficiency, again compromising the TXV’s ability to regulate refrigerant flow effectively. Without evaluating subcooling, a technician risks misinterpreting superheat readings and making inappropriate valve adjustments that fail to address the underlying system imbalance.
The relationship between subcooling and TXV adjustment is further exemplified in systems with long refrigerant lines or significant elevation changes. These factors can influence liquid line pressure drop, affecting the subcooling measurement at the TXV inlet. If the subcooling is inadequate due to pressure losses in the liquid line, the TXV may struggle to maintain the correct superheat, leading to evaporator flooding or starving. By considering these factors during subcooling evaluation, the technician gains a more comprehensive understanding of the system dynamics and can more accurately diagnose whether the TXV is the primary source of the problem or merely a symptom of other issues. Practical applications of this understanding are evident in commercial refrigeration systems, where long refrigerant runs are common, highlighting the need for meticulous subcooling assessment before and during TXV calibration.
In summary, while not a direct input for TXV adjustments, subcooling evaluation serves as a crucial diagnostic tool, informing the technician about refrigerant charge, condenser efficiency, and liquid line conditions. These factors significantly influence the environment in which the TXV operates, and ignoring them can lead to misdiagnosis and ineffective valve calibration. Integrating subcooling evaluation into the overall TXV adjustment process ensures a more holistic and effective approach to optimizing system performance, reducing energy consumption, and extending equipment lifespan. Understanding the underlying dynamics can minimize troubleshooting time and maximize efficiency.
8. Temperature drop
Temperature drop, particularly across the evaporator coil, serves as a crucial indicator of a thermostatic expansion valve’s (TXV) performance within a refrigeration or air conditioning system. Deviations from the expected temperature differential can signal TXV malfunction or system imbalances, necessitating careful evaluation and potential adjustment.
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Evaporator Coil Differential
The temperature difference between the air entering and exiting the evaporator coil directly reflects the coil’s ability to absorb heat from the conditioned space. A reduced temperature drop can indicate insufficient refrigerant flow due to a malfunctioning TXV, resulting in diminished cooling capacity. Conversely, an excessive temperature drop might suggest evaporator flooding caused by an overfeeding TXV. For instance, if the specified temperature drop is 15-20F, and the actual drop is only 5F, TXV calibration becomes a necessity to rectify the inadequate refrigerant supply.
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Impact on Superheat
Evaporator temperature drop is intrinsically linked to superheat. An inefficient evaporator, characterized by a small temperature drop, typically exhibits low superheat, increasing the risk of liquid refrigerant entering the compressor. Conversely, an over-performing evaporator, reflected in a large temperature drop, can result in high superheat, potentially leading to compressor overheating. Proper TXV adjustment aims to optimize the temperature drop to achieve the target superheat range, ensuring efficient and safe system operation. These two elements can be optimized for system safety.
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Airflow Considerations
Temperature drop measurements are sensitive to airflow across the evaporator coil. Reduced airflow, caused by a dirty air filter or a malfunctioning blower motor, can artificially inflate the temperature drop, masking underlying TXV issues. Before adjusting the TXV, it is imperative to verify adequate airflow to ensure accurate temperature drop readings. For example, restricting airflow by 50% can artificially increase the measured temperature drop, leading to incorrect TXV adjustments. Proper airflow minimizes the risk of false positives when assessing the TXV.
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Diagnostic Synergies
Temperature drop evaluation should be integrated with other diagnostic indicators, such as pressure readings and superheat measurements, for a comprehensive assessment of TXV performance. Analyzing these parameters in conjunction provides a more nuanced understanding of the system’s operational state, enabling technicians to differentiate TXV-related problems from other system malfunctions. This all encompassing method ensures a holistic approach to TXV calibration and system optimization. The interdependencies must be considered for proper system function.
Ultimately, temperature drop serves as a valuable, albeit indirect, indicator of TXV performance. Its accurate measurement and interpretation, in conjunction with other diagnostic data, are essential for effective TXV calibration and the maintenance of optimal system efficiency. Identifying this parameter is critical for proper TXV function.
9. Target superheat
The achievement of a specified target superheat constitutes the primary objective when modifying a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). The rationale is straightforward: superheat represents the temperature difference between the refrigerant vapor exiting the evaporator and its saturation temperature at that point. Proper regulation of this temperature difference ensures optimal evaporator utilization and safeguards the compressor. Absent a clearly defined target, adjustments to the TXV become arbitrary, potentially leading to system inefficiencies or, more seriously, compressor damage. For instance, if a system requires a superheat of 8-12F and the observed value is 5F, indicating overfeeding, the TXV is adjusted to restrict refrigerant flow until the target range is met. Conversely, if the superheat is 15F, signifying a starved evaporator, the TXV is adjusted to increase refrigerant flow. These examples demonstrate how target superheat functions as the benchmark against which TXV modifications are measured and validated.
The determination of an appropriate target superheat relies on several factors, including the type of refrigerant used, the evaporator design, and the intended application of the refrigeration or air conditioning system. Manufacturers often provide specific superheat recommendations for their equipment, typically documented in service manuals or equipment specifications. Adherence to these recommendations is paramount for achieving optimal system performance and avoiding operational problems. In scenarios where manufacturer data is unavailable, empirical methods, informed by industry best practices, can be employed to estimate the target superheat based on similar systems and operating conditions. In supermarket refrigeration systems, for example, achieving a precise target superheat in each display case is essential to maintain food safety and minimize energy consumption. This illustrates the crucial role that target superheat plays in the system’s overall operation and economy.
In summary, target superheat serves as the quantitative goal guiding TXV adjustments. Its correct specification, based on system parameters and manufacturer recommendations, is critical for ensuring optimal evaporator performance and compressor protection. Challenges often arise from incomplete system documentation or fluctuating operating conditions, necessitating careful monitoring and iterative adjustments to maintain the desired superheat. The ability to accurately measure, interpret, and achieve the target superheat remains a cornerstone of skilled HVAC/R practice.
Frequently Asked Questions
This section addresses common inquiries regarding the proper methods and considerations involved in modifying thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) settings. Understanding these fundamentals is crucial for ensuring efficient and reliable operation of refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
Question 1: What is the primary purpose of adjusting a TXV?
The central goal in altering TXV settings is to regulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator, maintaining optimal superheat. Appropriate superheat ensures efficient heat transfer within the evaporator while safeguarding the compressor from liquid refrigerant entry.
Question 2: What tools are essential for TXV adjustment?
Essential tools include a manifold gauge set for measuring system pressures, accurate thermometers for assessing temperatures, and potentially specialized tools for accessing and manipulating the TXV adjustment stem. Precise instrumentation is paramount for effective calibration.
Question 3: What are the potential consequences of improper TXV adjustment?
Incorrect TXV settings can lead to a range of adverse outcomes, including reduced cooling capacity, inefficient energy consumption, evaporator flooding, compressor damage, and shortened system lifespan. Accurate calibration is vital for preventing these issues.
Question 4: How often should a TXV be adjusted?
TXV adjustment is not a routine maintenance procedure. It should only be performed when system diagnostics indicate a deviation from optimal superheat or in response to significant changes in operating conditions. Unnecessary adjustments can disrupt system stability.
Question 5: What role does refrigerant charge play in TXV adjustment?
Refrigerant charge profoundly influences TXV operation. An incorrect charge can mimic or exacerbate TXV-related issues. It is crucial to verify and correct the refrigerant charge before attempting any TXV adjustments. Otherwise, those TXV adjustments might be useless.
Question 6: What safety precautions should be observed during TXV adjustment?
Safety is paramount. The technician must wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves and eye protection, to prevent injury from refrigerant exposure or high-pressure components. Strict adherence to safety protocols is non-negotiable.
Accurate diagnosis and meticulous execution are essential when adjusting TXVs. A thorough understanding of system dynamics, coupled with careful adherence to best practices, ensures optimal system performance and longevity.
The next section will delve into advanced troubleshooting techniques for common TXV-related issues.
Essential Considerations for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Calibration
The following guidance aims to provide crucial insights for technicians engaged in the calibration of thermostatic expansion valves. Adherence to these principles fosters accurate adjustments and optimal system performance.
Tip 1: Conduct a Thorough System Evaluation: Before initiating TXV adjustments, perform a comprehensive assessment of the refrigeration or air conditioning system. This includes evaluating refrigerant charge, compressor performance, condenser efficiency, and evaporator airflow. Addressing any underlying issues prior to TXV calibration ensures that adjustments are made under optimal operating conditions.
Tip 2: Accurately Measure Superheat: Precise superheat measurement is paramount. Employ calibrated thermometers and pressure gauges to obtain accurate readings at the evaporator outlet. Ensure proper instrument placement and allow sufficient time for the system to stabilize before recording measurements. Inaccurate superheat data invalidates the calibration process.
Tip 3: Employ Incremental Adjustments: Implement small, measured adjustments to the TXV stem, typically in quarter-turn increments. After each adjustment, allow the system to stabilize for at least 15-20 minutes before re-evaluating superheat. This iterative approach minimizes the risk of overcorrection and enables fine-tuning.
Tip 4: Monitor System Pressures: Observe both suction and discharge pressures during the TXV adjustment process. Significant deviations from normal operating pressures may indicate underlying system issues or TXV malfunction. Correlate pressure changes with superheat readings to gain a holistic understanding of system performance.
Tip 5: Document All Adjustments: Maintain a detailed record of all adjustments made to the TXV, including the date, time, initial superheat reading, adjustment direction, and resulting superheat. This documentation facilitates future troubleshooting and provides valuable insights into system behavior.
Tip 6: Prioritize System Stability: Fluctuations can significantly complicate TXV calibration. Operate the system under stable conditions or determine a range where fluctuation is expected. Operate within these ranges to minimize the chance of the system experiencing unexpected changes.
In essence, successful TXV calibration necessitates a systematic approach grounded in accurate data, incremental adjustments, and comprehensive system knowledge. By adhering to these core principles, technicians can achieve optimal system performance and ensure reliable operation.
This guidance provides a solid foundation for executing precise and effective TXV adjustments. The next phase of discussion will explore diagnostic techniques for identifying common TXV-related malfunctions.
How to Adjust a TXV
This exploration has detailed the multifaceted process of modifying thermostatic expansion valves. The intricacies of superheat measurement, refrigerant charge optimization, and system stability have been emphasized. Furthermore, the importance of incremental adjustments, informed by accurate pressure readings and a defined target superheat, has been underscored as essential for effective calibration. Emphasis has been given to key components like stem location and temperature drop.
Proper execution of these procedures is paramount for ensuring the efficient and reliable operation of refrigeration and air conditioning systems. The knowledge presented equips technicians to address TXV-related issues with precision, contributing to energy conservation, equipment longevity, and ultimately, the responsible management of climate control technologies. Continued adherence to best practices and a commitment to ongoing learning are crucial for navigating the evolving landscape of HVAC/R technology.
